When we hear the word “China”, one of the first things that come to mind is the fact that the country is still communist. Therefore, the government censors what is published. Often, the western view towards censorship is negative, as we believe it limits individuals from expressing their ideas or opinions. We often believe that in China only a minimal amount of information, that is, in positive light of the government is published. There is some truth to this, but it is only half of the truth. Many articles focus on this first half, about what is not published. However, only a few people actually look at the second half, what is allowed to be published.

Prayer at Temple in Varanasi, India

In his short essay, “Electronic Literature in the People’s Republic of China”, Michel Hockx attempts to depict the other side of the coin. Born in 1964, Michel Hockx is a Professor of Chinese at University of London’s School of Oriental and African Studies. Hockx is also an author to many books related to Chinese poetry and literature. In his essay, Hockx talks about interactive component of writing on the web.

Contrary to the beliefs of many people, the number of Internet users in China has been growing over the past few years. In 1999, “the first commercially operated website for creative writing was launched in Shanghai. This website was called…Under the Banyan Tree” (Hockx). It is a discussion forum, so an author posts his or her work, thus starting a thread. Readers can comment, and the author may also respond. When someone responds to a particular post, the thread goes to the top of the forum. The success of this website came with Lu Youqing’s post called the “Diary of Death” where Yuoqing posted about his last days of life as he was dying of cancer.

From the example of “Diary of Death”, Hockx wants to show the popularity of the online discussion forums in China. These discussion forums serve as a medium between electronic and print literature because the website, Under the Banyan Tree, formats the posts so that they would appear in a format similar to a book. Hockx mentions the growing size of “network literature” in China, which is when “a literary work was published and achieved fame online before it was printed, it will carry with it into print culture a genre label that reminds its readers of the electronic origins” (Hockx).

The example about the “Diary of Death” being posted online and people commenting on it is a very nice way for a man to still be in touch with the world. Yuoqing probably received responses that were encouraging to him to keep fighting. Some people may have told him jokes to bring a smile to his face amidst all of this pain. I think this is important. Just because a man may not physically be able to get up does not mean he has to lose connection with people of the world. Whether he is on his couch or bed, Yuoqing was connected till his last breath. This would not have been possible had countries like China would not have diverged to such interactive paths.

Such discussion forums have also become a vital part in poetry as poets prefer online discussion. These forums serve as a path for aspiring writers to become successful. As these people post on these forums, more people read and comment on them. People moderating the site realize the importance of the work and often label it as such. Eventually, the work gets published into print.

Online discussion forums serve as a good way for one to receive both positive and negative criticism immediately. Granted a personal touch to work is important, but it is also important that works should be published in a timely manner. Today, in many western countries, including the United States, the publishing procedure can take quite a long time. The wait period is often so long that it can outdate the information that is to be published. Therefore, publishing within seconds of completion of a work most definitely speeds up the process.

In the People’s Republic of China, and possibly in other parts of the Chinese reading world as well, innovations are moving into a different direction, employing the interactive features of web writing in order to produce unstable, multi-authored threads of writing and images that encourage participation and that involve their readership in new literary and aesthetic experiences (Hockx).

Through the use of discussion forums, people of all ages interact virtually on a particular point or concept. With the author and readers both commenting on a certain post, it makes the work multi-authored. Unlike the western belief that each work should have unique nature, people in China prefer that their works are interactive and generate discussion within seconds after a post has been made.

Hockx, through his article, also shows how the people of China are using the resources they have to the best of their abilities. Despite the sword of censorship, the people try to work around it and do the most with the power in their hands. Furthermore, engaging in online discussion forums connects people from all across China. These posts can be a great way to express opinions or messages to people around the country. The also allows the meshing of different types of cultures from their respective regions. Similar to how, in America, we have blue and red states, it must be interesting to witness the differing opinions of the people of separate regions on particular posts.

Map of China

This article links to the points made in Writing for the Web because there were many links between China’s discussion forum and blogs. Felder, in Writing for the Web, talks about the use of active vocabulary and using concise language online. A similar style is followed on these discussion threads. Despite the similarities, there are also some differences between blogs and discussion forums. I feel that discussion forums gave more power to the reader compared to blogs. This is seen when a person’s comment on a post is “alive” in order to keep the thread going. I feel that these forums are more “reader-runned” compared to being administered by the authors. Another difference that I observed was the different way people use the discussion forums in different countries.  In the United States, we think of discussion forums as  standard kind of like “help threads”. The people of China  use the discussion forums as platform for a variety of writings such as for poetry or online journals, for example the “Diary of Death.”

I believe the increasing participation in the online discussion forums is a positive step as it is a step towards being well-informed about one’s surroundings. I feel this is a great way to communicate with people. When I make searches on Google, it often leads me to a discussion thread. I often press the back button because I have always thought of them as not being helpful. However, after reading this article my opinion about them has changed. I think western countries need to move in this direction as well. Even though I do feel the personal touch to one’s work is important, I also believe group work has potential to lead to better and stronger results.

From this point, the example that comes to mind is Hinduism. Hindus go to the temple in order to pray, and they also set up small temples in rooms at home. When a Hindu prays by himself or herself, he or she may feel the connection with God alone. On the other hand, while he or she prays amidst a group of people at the temple, he or she will feel that connection with God. However, the vibrations are much stronger as a group because all the people are focusing their attention to the same thing. Hence, in Hinduism and in other religions, people are encouraged to pray together.

Bingo

In elementary school, when the teacher wants to teach her students the seven continents, she goes about doing this by teaching them a song. Or when the teacher wants to teach the students the numbers one to four, the class would get to play four corners. As the students get older, the Spanish teacher wants to teach the students vocabulary. In order to do this creatively yet ensure the maximum amount of learning, the teacher sets up a game of Bingo. In the Bingo game the teacher will read the vocabulary word out in English while the students would mark the word on the Bingo board in Spanish. As seen in the examples above, games have long been a part of our learning system from the time we were children.

In the past years, there has been a gradual shift from physical or board games to video games. The word video game comes with several idiosyncrasies. It generally comes with negative connotations. Nevertheless, Bogost believes video games have the power to enhance the procedure of learning. Dr. Ian Bogost is a designer as well as a media philosopher. He completed his undergraduate years at University of Southern California while he did his Ph. D at UCLA. He has written several books regarding the topic of video games. Bogost currently resides in Atlanta, Georgia.

Today, one of the main reasons why the playing of video games is discouraged is because, at the end of the day, it is a game. Games or play are considered a “children’s activity” (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 120). On the contrary, Bogost believes it is important to allow these because he believes video games present a small picture of what the real world is like. He gives the example of his son playing the game Animal Crossing.  His son soon realizes a dilemma while playing. “The more material possessions he took on, the more space he needed, and the more debt he had to assume to provide that space” (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 117). Such games hone into the social dynamics of the real world. “The game simplifies the real world in order to draw attention to relevant aspects of that world” (119).

Video games allow children to get exposure to the “real world” that may not get otherwise. They put a child in a certain situation, and he or she must figure out how to overcome it. This reminded me of the example of children going to arcades like Chuck E’ Cheese. In order to play the games, the child must insert the number of tokens indicated. If a parent gives the child ten tokens, it is up to the child what he or she wants to do with them. He or she can use all the tokens in one game or use them for different games. Children have to learn to make decisions in certain constraints, which in this case are both time and the number of coins. The exposure to constraints prepares him or her for the real world, as there may be multiple constraints in various aspects of life. Playing such games can be thought of as a type of literacy. This “kind of literacy…helps us make or critique the systems we live in” (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 136).

Bogost also believes video games open an array of different topics, which may possibly awaken an interest of something to do in the future. Shaffer argues, “games can model how professions work, offering an incomplete, yet embodied experience of real-world jobs” (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 130). There are many games that provide exposure to the different careers that are open for the children to fill. One example is the game Take Back Illinois, which provides exposure to the public health aspect of society. While the game Spore zooms into the more scientific field as it introduces the idea of evolution and natural selection to children. Such video games can create a penchant towards a particular aspect, which can then be fulfilled in the future in the real world.

 Playing video games is not only a children-only procedure. It is important that the parents play a role in this as they have had in the yesteryears when they would read to their children or play outside with them. Parents can help their children think critically and guide them. Not only parents, but teachers or professors should do the same. They, too, should ensure that their curriculum goes hand in hand with such tools as it can enhance the entire classroom experience.

Teachers can learn to help students address real-world issues by playing and critiquing the video games they play. And educators can also help students imagine and design games based on their own opinions of the world. When games are used in this fashion, they can become part of a whole range of subjects (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 120).

Bjork and Schwartz bring up a similar point in “Writing in the Wild”. They talk about the stereotype of the traditional classroom setting. We continue to believe that “teaching still “happens” in the classroom” (Writing in the Wild, 223). However, both “Writing for the Wild” and The Rhetoric of Video Games talk about breaking those conventional ideas, as it is necessary to bend with the time that is lived in.

One of the hardest things faced by all people regardless of what the subject maybe is to relate to a person from another generation. Today, as Lanham said, we live in an economy of attention. We have so much information surrounding us. “The World Wide Web is now document of billions of pages long. And as if digital overload weren’t enough, printed books still pour from the presses: over 160, 000 new U.S. titles and editions in 2002” (Economies of Attention, 7). Clearly, information is not the issue. The greatest need today is the need for attention. It is important to adjust to the time we live in. Therefore, Bogost believes using video games can enhance the learning procedure whether that is at school or at home. By presenting information to children in a form that is engaging to them, it can grab their attention and allow them to critically “make arguments, to persuade, and to express ideas” (The Rhetoric of Video Games, 137).

Overall, I agree with Bogost, but to a certain extent. I am not a video game expert. Yet I agree it is important to challenge the traditional classroom settings, as we do not live in the early 1900s anymore. I believe it is important to make the classrooms multimedia. Learning about the locomotion of amoebas is completely different than being able to observe it in the classroom right after it is discussed. Similarly, hands-on tools like video games can enhance an experience on a variety of other topics. Nevertheless, I feel it is also important to limit one’s exposure. With video games, kids generally lock themselves up in a room for hours. This is not healthy for a child. It is important that children play outside and become familiar with their external surroundings. I feel there is a gray are between where video games are productive and where they can become addictive hence the rise of the “gamers” society. Therefore, I believe playing videogames should be done in limit.

Lord of the Flies

While reading this article it made me think of the book, Lord of the Flies, written by William Golding. In the article, Bogost talks about the possibility of space and how children first establish rules before starting to play. A very similar incident happens in this book. A plane crashes and a group of young boys land on an uninhabited island.  They attempt to make rules and run a structured society. They elect a leader, Ralph, and run their own small government. After a while, everything ends up as chaos. Some of the boys on the island become selfish and begin to only look out for themselves. Thus the book depicts the worst of human nature as it eventually transforms into “survival of the fittest”.

Bunsen burner

While in college, there are many requirements that need to be completed before being allowed to graduate. Requirements include some classes in the arts, the music, the English, the sciences, etc. With each science class, there comes a lab. Mostly all students dread lab. Why? Because it is a three-hours long where students have to stand and follow lists of instructions.

However, the lab teaches “practical” applications of the topics studied in class. Any student can memorize the concepts and do the simple calculations. Yet learning how to do a practical application is key to understand topics. For example, reading how to light a Bunsen burner is a completely different experience from actually lighting it. Similarly, going on a campus walk and observing a mutualistic relationship between the lichen and the oak tree is different from reading about it in a book.

In “Writing for the Wild”, Bjork and Schwartz both talk about the idea of these practical applications. Dr. John Pedro Schwartz is currently an assistant professor of English Literature at the American University of Beirut. He has done his PhD from the University of Texas at Austin. His specialties include Modern British Literature, Museum Studies, etc. On the other hand, Dr. Olin Bjork is currently an adjunct lecturer at Santa Clara University. Like Schwartz, Bjork received his PhD from University of Texas at Austin. Bjork’s interests include computers and writing, digital humanities, interface design, etc.

Both Bjork and Schwartz talk about the increasing usage of the Internet and how the wireless technology has “reconfigured the space of writing instructions” (Bjork and Schwartz, 225). Today, something can be found on the most random topic online. As a result of the availability of secondary sources online, students have solely begun relying on these sources. However, Trimbur explains the importance of field research because some doubts “can’t be addressed solely on the basis of print or electronic sources” (Trimbur, 549). This made me think of an example of an Environmental class. When a professor assigns students paper about a certain type of tree, the first instinct of the student is that he or she will Google the tree and then find websites related to the tree to write this paper. However, not for one second does the idea of actually stepping out in nature and physically touching and observing the tree strike the student. By searching simply for the answers online, this student has just missed an opportunity to actually discover something about this unique tree. As both Dobrin and Weisser say, “Nature and environment must be lived in, experienced to see how the very discourses in which we live react to those environments” (Dobrin and Weisser, 59).

Today, the idea of writing has been isolated to only certain locations like Starbucks or the library. Often students feel they cannot write in a certain place because the location does not have Wifi. Yet, it is important to have a personal touch with the topic one is writing about. Sitting inside the library when writing a paper about nature when it is seventy-five degrees outside is a missed opportunity to produce better work. Bjork and Schwartz, nevertheless, explicate the importance of “writing in the wild”.

 For example, an African American student writing at home is far more disembodied than if she were writing in the visible, public space of an art museum. Similarly, an affluent female student writing at a working-class, male dominated bowling alley feels her status more acutely than she would feel it writing in the library or the dorm room.  We argue that students can perceive-and learn to challenge-their social, cultural, and historical locations when they research, write and even publish on location. (Bjork and Schwartz, 225).

These statements made by Bjork and Schwartz are consistent with my beliefs. This reminded me of my trip to the Jallianwalah Bagh when I went to India several years ago. Jallianwalah Bagh was a public garden in the early 1900s where the Indian people would gather to plan for steps towards independence from Britain. One night a meeting was called, and so many men, women, and children gathered in the area. Suddenly, there were gunshots. It turned out that the British had called a fake meeting to kill all of the Indians in the area. Now, how does this relate to the topic we are discussing? Well, writing about this incident while sitting in the Jallianwalah Bagh and seeing the bullets piercing a whole through the walls is completely different from writing about it based on the information found on Wikipedia.

Lately, there has been a trend of mobilizing composition. With the Internet, professors are now able to post lectures slides on sites like Camino and Blackboard. This has been taken a step further where in some schools have made lectures iPod friendly.  Even though electric tools like iPods and laptops are easy to use, “laptops have failed to overtake paper as the campus note-taking medium of choice” (Bjork and Schwartz, 228). Yet at the same time, such instruments have also broken the existing stereotypes of what a classroom has always been defined as. Even the definition of the word homework has changed. Today, assignments do not have to be submitted before every lecture in paper form. But blogs, electronic essays, emails, etc. are all means of submitting work. Due to the hand-sized technology we have today, students are able to research anything at anytime regardless of their location. Most mobile devices can connect to the Internet therefore, anything and everything is a simple click away.

I thought this was a very well written article. I completely agree with the idea of “writing in the wild” as I think it gives a personal touch to one’s writing. In addition to such primary sources, I feel it important to have a plethora of secondary sources available to us because it adds more depth to one’s writing. I also agree with the point of mobilizing composition. Yet, there are two ways to look at it. Before the Internet, a professor would not be able to communicate with students outside of the realms of a classroom besides via telephone. However, due to the advanced technology today, professors can simply shoot emails to make clarifications or changes to the syllabus. The other way of looking at this is that fewer students appear in class because everything related to the lecture appears online. So, I think we are at a point where we need to realize the positives of technology as well as the negatives.

There were several links I saw with this article. Felder in Writing for the Web talks about the idea of keeping the writing short yet it should convey the most amount of information. I think this article has done a good job with that as it brought up several different points but synthetically conglomerated them into one. It also reminded me of Lanham’s work when it mentioned primary v. secondary sources. Lanham, in the Economies of Attention, talked about we live an attention age not an information age. While looking at the primary and secondary sources, it is up to the writer what he chooses to use and what he wants to disuse. Therefore, it truly is an economy of attention.

Hrithik Roshan as Quadriplegic

While reading this article, the point about actually feeling what you write about, I think, enhances one’s writing. This made me think an Indian movie I had watched on several years ago. In the movie, the actor, Hrithik Roshan, plays the role of a quadriplegic. While the movie was being made, Roshan had decided that for three months he was going to be a quadriplegic in his real life as well as his reel life. He did this because he wanted to feel the pain of a quadriplegic in order to do justice to the role. Holding a connection with something one is passionate about enhances one’s performance whether that be acting or writing. The movie went on to being a great commercial success. Below, I have attached the trailer.

httpv://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9QiS6nw1DM

Picture Books

Whether it be eating, talking, walking, etc., we needed help with the most miniscule tasks as babies. As we got older, our parents introduced the concept of books. First, they gave us picture books where the entire page was filled with bright colors, vivid pictures, and may be a word or two. As we entered the next phase in our life, our books went from being one or two words to a sentence consisting of four to five words. Then, we went to two sentences, and the colors on the pages began to become more dull. Eventually, half the page became words and the pictures became black and white. Finally, the entire page became long sentences and no pictures. The question is why did we start with pictures initially if, at the end, we would be reading books filled with only words. The answer is obvious: the pictures were there to create a penchant for books and the concept of reading. They were there to visually attract us to a certain page or certain book so that we would pick it up and finish reading it.

From when we started learning our ABCs in preschool up to the last midterm we took this week, every teacher or professor has emphasized the idea “show, don’t tell”. It is often easier to understand and grasp material in a visual format as compared to its textual form. Chapter 7 of Designing Visual Language goes into the depth about data displays. It is written by Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts. Kostelnick is currently an English professor at Iowa State University where his interests include visual rhetoric in professional communication, international communication, cross-cultural communication, etc. On the other hand, Roberts is the author of several other books including An Annotated Edition of Selected Criticism.

A significant part of the visual design should be the focus on the rhetorical situation. The designer must recognize, “who your readers are, what your purpose is, and how your readers will actually use the display” (266, Designing Visual Language). This point was also mentioned in Kostelnick’s paper, The Visual Rhetoric of Data Displays: The Conundrum of Clarity. It is important to channel a graphic according to the knowledge of the audience. It may sound a bit rudimentary, but a presentation for second graders clearly has to be different than one made to the CEOs of hotels. Keeping this in mind, Kostelnick and Roberts introduce their audience to the different forms of graphs available and which would seem the perfect fit in a particular situation.

By starting off with the example of Ed, the authors grab the reader’s attention because it makes something technical seem like a story. Ed goes through pie graphs, bar graphs, etc. and sticks with the line graph as it conveys the vast information in the simplest option available. However, finding the right graph is not enough. Another essential part of graphs is the visual editing to “increase emphasis, clarity, conciseness, and ethos” (252). This can be small steps as thickening one of the lines on the graph to depict contrasts or larger ones such as removing “chartjunk” (118, The Visual Rhetoric of Data Displays: The Conundrum of Clarity).

Once the rhetorical situation is defined, it is important to focus on the six cognate strategies to develop the display. While constructing displays, the designer holds power of what points need to be emphasized. Emphasizing certain points impacts how the audience may interpret information, so this tool must be used carefully. Picking an arrangement that conveys the complex information in the simplest manner is critical because

Arrangement decisions have rhetorical effects, and these decisions can take many other forms. You should also keep in mind that culture can play a role in arrangement strategies for data displays. For instance, in cultures were reading flows from left to right, it would be natural to show data trends in that same way….In a culture that reads right-to-left, however, even given the placement of the y-axis, some readers might interpret the data trend as down rather than up….Culture plays a major role in how we design data displays as well as how we interpret them (268).

Kostelnick, in The Visual Rhetoric of Data Displays: The Conundrum of Clarity, mentioned “different readers have different interpretive frameworks that profoundly influence what they find clear and credible in data displays” (11). Certain colors or symbols may have completely unique definitions as compared to those in the rest of the world, which is why clarity is important along with the rhetorical situation. Colors can also allow one to set the tone of the data because it can make visual look lurid or it can look appealing. At the same time, being concise is key because a colorful convoluted visual may not convey the main idea.

Some other aspects to consider while making these graphs are the graphic and spatial elements to describe the data. “Organizing a data display spatially can determine largely what it looks like and how effective it is” (256, Designing Visual Language). The choice of using bars, dots, lines, pie slices, etc. can affect the aesthetics of the visual and the interpretations made by the audience.  So it is important to consider the rhetorical situation, the amount of data needed to be presented, and the variations among the data.

I think it is important to spatially arrange the data in a way that is simple enough to understand. For example, the point of a pie graph is to compare information about a certain topic. If the pie consists of more than eight slices, the audience will be confused as to which one to look at first. At the end, this convoluted figure will further the conundrum instead of actually leading to an extrapolation.
In contrast, when the pie has only two or three slices, it makes it more aesthetically pleasing and interpretable for the reader.  It is also important to keep in mind the elements surrounding the data such as the background shading or grid lines. Adding color or pictorial elements in reference to the topic may help to enhance the presentation depending on the rhetorical situation.

In the discussion of spatial elements, one point that particularly appealed to me was the idea of the stretching and sinking of the plot frame. When making graphs in chemistry lab or for Calculus homework, we normally do not think about presenting to the audience because these graphs have been created in order to find a mathematical solution. However, scaling the graph correctly to set the proper tone is important to convey the message clearly. If the graph is not designed properly, it can often lead to multiple interpretations of the same information. As a designer, one does not want to create more ambiguity as it will take away from the presentation.

The points Robert and Kostelnick make are valid as the thought process behind making a visual should be more than just simply throwing a graph in there to avoid writing texts. The most important point I picked up was the fact that the rhetorical situation should constantly be taken into consideration. Otherwise, the points will not be conveyed to the audience.

I saw many links between this reading and Kostelnick’s The Visual Rhetoric of Data Displays: The Conundrum of Clarity. There was less emphasis on clarity as this time Roberts and Kostelnick were talking about the data displays as a whole, however, the ideas about taking culture into consideration and getting rid of the clutter re-appeared.

The idea about rhetorical situation reminded me of Cicero because in De Oratore, Cicero says, “he ought first to find out what he should say; next, to dispose and arrange his matter, not only in a certain order, but with a sort of power and judgment”. Kostelnick and Roberts have modified what Cicero said. Rhetorical situation, according to them, means the designer should know his or her audience, figure out the purpose of the visual, and, finally, how the visual will be arranged.

HIV Virus

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a deadly virus that has been taking millions of lives every year. Scientists were interested in looking at the origin of HIV and how the virus had evolved over the years. The earliest samples scientists had of HIV in America were from the 1980s, which was too recent. They, then, obtained samples of the blood of those who had died of HIV in Africa in 1959. They took samples from 1980, 1959, etc. and were able to make a line graph of how the virus had evolved. They found that the virus in 1959 was only.065 different from the original strain of the virus. So, using a molecular clock, scientists estimated that HIV had originated in the 1930s in Africa. All this was done using line graphs and slopes. Clearly, the aid of visuals has helped the world in a variety of fields and will continue to do so for years to come.

Disposable Cameras

Just 15 years ago, we picked up disposal cameras from the local grocery store when we planned on going school field trips, camping, etc. Snapping the perfect picture would take two minutes as the blue light would have to light up before the photo could be taken. Each time the process of photo snapping required the rotation of a knob to reset the camera on the proper roll. Finally, after taking twenty-seven pictures, the disposable camera would simply be of no use anymore. The camera would be taken to Walmart or Walgreens for the roll to be developed. Clearly, times have changed. After the invent of the digital camera, snapshot can be viewed within seconds after the picture is taken. Instantaneous decisions can be made whether or not the shot needs to be re-done. The technology of cameras is not the only technology that has advanced in the last fifteen years. Whether it be cars, cell phones, or computers, a variety of gadgets have been transformed.

When the leap was made from green cell phone backgrounds to the color cell phone backgrounds, people were in awe. Immense advancements have been made in the technologies especially related to the fields of visual graphical design. “Technology has always played a role in data visualization, and over the past two decades it has revolutionized its design, production, and reception.” (Kostelnick, 117). Today we see graphs and charts everywhere, whether that be in class, on the news, or even in travel brochures. Charles Kostelnick, who is a professor at Iowa State University, has further researched this topic. His interests include the history of visual communications, international and cross-cultural communication, the visual rhetoric of professional communications. He discusses each of these topics in his paper, The Visual Rhetoric of Data Displays: The Conundrum of Clarity.

Kostelnick believes graphical excellence is achieved when intricate ideas are presented in a manner with clarity, precision, and efficiency. It is important to communicate with your audience in a manner that they will comprehend the greatest amount of information in the shortest amount of time. While listening to presentations, one of the biggest problems the audience complains about today is the idea of “Powerpoint Poisoning”. The presenter writes the points he or she will share in his or her powerpoint, and he or she shares them verbatim. Clearly, this is not the same as sharing the greatest amount of information in the least amount of time; it is being redundant. Therefore, the key is to maintain clarity. Brasseur defines clarity as the “perceptual cognitive-based school of thought” (117).

Holding this approach ensures optimal communication between the designer and user. While designing data, the question should be what display technique will allow me to convey myself most clearly to the audience. In order to have optimal interpretation, it is necessary to avoid clutter and be visually precise. Today,

The design templates and wizards of graphing software make readers particularly vulnerable. Three-dimensional displays often hide data or impede the reader’s ability to make comparisons; pie, donut, and shaped areas; and options for filling bars, plot frames, and other forms can result in eye-straining clashes of color and patterns. By undermining the clarity of the display, these perceptual faux pas also weaken the ethos, or credibility, of the designer  (118).

By making designs too complex, the designer may receive a contradictory response as compared to the response  he or she may have hoped to create.

Another important aspect of optimal communication is the awareness of the audience’s cultural background. In his article, he goes to mention how “different readers have different interpretive frameworks that profoundly influence what they find clear and credible in data displays” (119). For example, different colors have a unique significance in different cultures. Depicted, in Figure 1, in the United States, the white on the American flag means innocence or purity. In contrast, the white on the Indian flag means the light, leading the country on the path of righteousness. So, the color white on a bar graph can create different ethos depending on those from unique cultural backgrounds.

In addition to cultural background, analyzing the educational background may aid in conveying key points. A physicist may completely extrapolate a convoluted technical chart, however, this may not be the case for a lawyer reading the same chart. Hence, “a simple, low-key display…may engage…[the audience] quite successfully” (119), however, sometimes to ignite the attention of the audience, it may also be important to include the clutter. Keeping the “physical, perceptual, and historical context” (120)  in mind aids in designing graphics as well. Kostelnick conveys the idea of KAIROS, which means it is necessary to keep the given rhetorical situation in mind to adjust a particular display. Presenting in a meeting with executives creates a different ambiance then presenting to a class of kindergarteners.

Today, we live in a “dog eat dog” world. We do not innately know how to create and read charts; we acquire such skills through experience as it is all learned. When one gets a new job, he has to learn the techniques and methods of the company. The same principle can be applied to data designs as they, too, are socially constructed. Regardless of what job one may apply for, basic skills regarding visualizing data are necessary. Not everyone is adept to rapidly pick up the new technological tools offered. Hence, softwares such as Powerpoint or Excel allow anyone to make their designs through just a few clicks. Such mediums have allowed us to move into a digital age. There are so many companies today which are paperless or working to be completely paperless, This has been possible due to digital data and designing.

Digital data design whereby the display is produced and interpreted entirely on a screen, has opened up opportunities to invent novel designs and to widen the pool of conventional forms, including some from the past, and thereby socialize design by redefining our concept of visual literacy. Because many digital online displays are interactive, they allow readers to adapt them to their varying needs and interests, fulfilling traditional rhetorical goals (122).

Figure 1: Indian and American flag

While reading through Kostelnick’s work, I continually thought about Felder’s Writing for the Web. As Kostelnick is introducing his argument, one of his first statements was the need to be concise, which was also one of Felder’s underlying themes. Another link I saw between both Felder and Kostelnick was the idea about active reading. Kostelnick, writing in reference to digital displays, while Felder, writing in reference to writing for the web, both mention how the medium of the Internet allows one to be more interactive. When one comes across something interesting on the Web, simply clicking on the hyperlink can take one to more information on the topic of interest.

The point behind graphical designs is to present in such a manner to get the most amount of information across in the simplest method possible. Felder says one should make bullet lists and keep short sentences. Kostelnick explains the same idea, visually, by creating simple graphs or charts which are easily readable. In his article Kostelnick mentions the Mosaics and how it failed because it required too much time for the audience to figure out how to use it. Both Felder and Kostelnick could have predicted this because while readers are on the web, they are looking for quick answers and short cuts. Such complex tools are clearly not serving those purposes.

Kostelnick made great points about digital graphic design. The task of presenting the greatest amount of information in the simplest way is not an easy task. Yet at the same time, in my experience, I have learned the the most when presenters follow this protocol. I also agree with Kostelnick that it is important to connect to one’s audience. Whether that is by telling a story, a joke, or a personal experience, hooking the reader in will definitely aid in conveying the main ideas later.

As students at Santa Clara University, we are surrounded by all kinds of technology that are extremely interactive. As we enter the library, we are surrounded by LED touchscreens guiding us to their desired destination. There are a copious number of different softwares from Powerpoint to Photoshop to Photobooth available on the common computers which make almost anything possible. As students, we are required to be familiar with so many different softwares in order to complete projects and presentations. Understanding and using digital media will be key for further studying as well as seeking jobs in our future.

Presidents of America

Living in the 21st century is difficult. We have so much “stuff” and information around us. In our readings a couple of weeks ago, Lanham mentioned how today we live in an economy of attention. There is so much information surrounding us. So, the question becomes what do we give our attention to?

Lynda Felder, in Writing for the Web, describes how the audience on the Internet is looking for quick solutions or quick answers, hence the rise of sites like Yahoo! Answers or Ask.com. Whether we are using Google or Wikipedia, the question is what convinces a user to click on a certain link over another.  No one wants to read plain or dry text. Svenja Adolphs explains this point in her book, Introducing Electronic Text Analysis. Adolphs holds a PhD and is a professor of English language and linguistics. Her areas of expertise include applied linguistics, discourse analysis, pragmatics, genre analysis, and corpus linguistics. Her main research interests are both corpus linguistics and discourse.

While introducing electronic text analysis in chapter one through three, Adolphs goes on to teach the basic techniques in chapter four through six. She shows the general techniques of analyzing words or phrases at a concordance level. First of all, a “concordance programme arranges all instances of a particular search item in a way that makes the search item appear in the centre of the page” (52). Concordance analysis also can be used to both create as well as test a hypothesis.  Not only that but due to concordance output, the overall connotation of words in relation to its co-text has also become possible.

Concordance analysis also describes the individual units of meaning, consisting of four categories including collocation, colligation, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. Collocation refers to the consistent co-occurrence of certain words while the semantic preference is “the semantic grouping of the words that co-occur on either side of the node” (56).  Semantic prosodies, on the other hand, can be seen as positive or negative polarity. These categories are the rudiments for the describing words and phrases at a concordance level.

Adolphs also goes into depth about the principles on which languages is based upon. The first is the “idiom principle”. This is working when the speaker uses lexical or semi-lexical phrases because they are brought back as single items yet they are stored as long-term memories. In contrast to this is the “open choice principle”. This is the language that is based on the grammatical rules.

Adolphs illustrates how the skills developed in corpus linguistics can also be applied to literary texts. Most of the corpus stylists are made to interpret a collection of the literary texts. The interpretations, which exist, are based on analytical concepts that have come from outside the realms of electronic text analysis. Hence, while preparing an electronic text, it is influenced by earlier discussions of the literary text or by an approach, which already exists. There mainly are two approaches. One relies on intra-textual analysis while the other is based on the comparison of texts to other collections.

Intra-textual analysis manipulates the text to get more information about the data, thus aiding in the entire interpretation process.  This approach works while dealing with longer texts. The other approach, the comparison of texts to other collections, for example, includes analyzing collocations and semantic prosodies. Regardless of the differences, both approaches are helpful in further revealing the text.

While there are many other factors that need to be taken into account, Adolphs puts great emphasis on grammatical structure in Introducing Electronic Text Analysis. After all, “the grammatical structure which an author chooses to represent the speech and thoughts of characters in a piece of writing thus affect the meaning and point of view” (Chapter 5, Adolphs).
The idea of grammatical structure playing a role on the point of view is taken further by Simpson. He separates three categories of point of views, including positive, negative, and neutral.

Positive shading is achieved through deontic or boulomaic modality, which denote the degree of obligation, commitment or desire in a proposition. This can be expressed through the use of modal auxillaries, such as will, must, can, should, may, or would, as in ‘She must go’, and modal adverbs, such as possibly, probably, or definitely, as in ‘She will definitely go.’ Evaluative adjectives and adverbs, such as beautiful or happy, are further indications of positive modality shading. Negative shading is achieved by epistemic and perception modality, which convey the speaker’s confidence in the truth of a proposition, as in the sentence ‘I think she has left’. The last type of polarity, neutral modality is minimal and in which the narration is maybe at its most ‘objective’.(Chapter 5, Adolphs)

Contrary to using terms like possibly or probably, terms like definitely, tend to leave a greater impact. They can either enhance or counteract one’s point of view. The take-away message that the audience receives may be totally different than what the author may have wanted a certain word to denote. Therefore, linguistics is very important as it is key to have tight syntax and precise diction.  While reading this, I was constantly thinking of different inaugural speeches given by the presidents of our nation. Each speech was different, yet, they all had similar themes such as the unification of the nation.

In every speech, the president promises to uptake new responsibilities to make the nation a better place. The president does not say that I will possibly fix the nation or I will probably fix the nation. In Bill Clinton’s inaugural speech, he say, “To that work I now turn with all the authority of my office.” Clinton assures the audience he is willing to take on this responsibility, and he will fix the problems the nation faces.

Whether it be America, China, or any other nation in the world, a citizen always looks for a confident leader who is willing to overcome any obstacles he or she may face while in office. By using terms like maybe, citizens are not left with the most reassuring feeling from their respective leaders. Thus, as Adolphs mentions, it is important to use positive shading while writing or speaking. Positive modality shading depicts the author’s confidence, which is important when you are leading a nation of millions, or even, billions of people.

As I was reading this, I thought about the different presidential inaugurations I had witnessed on television in my lifetime. I was also thinking about my eligibility to vote. At the age of 18, by law, every citizen is given the right to vote which gives them the authority to choose the most viable candidate.  As citizens of the United States, there are certain characteristics we hunt for in our leaders. We want a leader who we can have faith in. We want a leader we know will make the right choices for the nation. We want a leader who will promise to overcome obstacles even in times of the worst state of emergencies. So, the right to vote should essentially be thought of as a privilege. I was unable to vote in this past election. Nevertheless, after unscrambling my thoughts, I realized how important it is to vote and never take this right for granted.

httpv://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SWjIPwm954

Facebook: Connecting the World

The world is more connected today than ever before.  Some might like for this to mean that each human being is emotionally more connected to others.  However, the recent mass shootings in Aurora and Newtown, as well as a national shift towards emphasizing behavioral health may actually suggest that people feel more lonely and depressed, even though we are supposedly more “connected.”  In my opinion, to be connected in today’s world means to be connected in cyber space.  It means to constantly be connected to a gadget, such as a smart phone, tablet, or laptop; it means to receive alerts and notifications every few minutes about what is happening in everyone else’s world; it means to befriend people you have never met before on websites such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, LinkedIn; it means to share your life with them through photos, messages, videos, and emails.  Ultimately, it means to be connected to the world through cyber space, while actually being connected to nobody in the real world.

This phenomenon has resulted in a massive amount of data stored in cyber space, created when one user shares information with another.  Facebook users, for example, had stored 40 billion photos on the site by the year 2010.  This number continues to grow each day.  The website then takes this immense data mine and uses complex software programs to analyze it to a degree no human being can.  This software finds user trends and patterns, areas of opportunity for the website, user preferences, and future trends.  They use these findings to be able to get the right advertisements and the right information to the right person, thus maximizing their profits and the advertiser’s profits.  However, this concept is not unique to Facebook, and is in fact used by numerous industries, including linguistics, where corpora, or collections of electronic texts, are analyzed using computers.

Electronic text analysis allows us to manipulate language data in various ways to suit a particular research purpose.  The use of software tools in this process leads to more accurate and consistent results in a very short amount of time.  Once the data has been sorted in an accessible way…we can carry out further analysis on the data.  This analysis again helps to identify patterns that we might not be able to describe purely on an intuitive basis.  This includes the analysis of whether a word carries positive or negative connotations.  (Introducing Electronic Analysis)

This field of electronic analysis is especially important to me, as I regularly use the internet and social networking sites.  At the same time, I believe virtual connections are much weaker than personal ones. However, it often feels like a necessity to have access to social networking sites in order to stay connected to on-campus activities, student groups, and class acquaintances. When searching my name on search engines like Google, five to six different links show up being related to my name. Was I the one to post them? No, but this world of cyber space.

On the other hand, I did not realize that there was an entire industry behind what I thought was amazing when advertisements began appearing on my Google page that were specific to my search terms.  Websites such as Facebook are able to create a unique experience by customizing what the user sees based on what it feels would be of most interest to that particular user. As seen in the movie, Social Network, the rudimentary basis behind Facebook was to create the college social experience online for people.

Even more personally, I recently learned that the Santa Clara University student body petitioned for an honor code.  There is sure to be verbiage in this honor code specific to plagiarism and academic integrity.  Electronic text analysis would crucial to properly enforcing this entire honor code, as the software would critically analyze each student’s work and find matches in diction even when text may be summarized or changed slightly.  The field is extremely vast, and I am eager to see how it will continue to develop in the coming years.

httpv://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lB95KLmpLR4

We have got the whole world in our hands.

An ecological footprint measures how many Earths are needed to support the entire world population if they all lived like me. When I took the Ecological Footprint test online, it calculated there would need to be 5.3 Earths to support the world population if everyone followed my practices. Whether in our bedrooms or bathrooms, we tend to have more than we need. Today, it is unheard of that a family of four has only one car. Each eligible driver feels the need and entitlement to have a car these days. While going shopping, we do not shop for clothes anymore. Instead, we shop for brands. Essentially, we live in a world where there is simply too much “stuff”.

This simple concept is explained by Richard Lanham. A graduate of Yale University, Lanham has been a professor and a well-recognized author of several books including

• The Motives of Eloquence
• The Economics of {Attention}

 Currently, he serves as the president of Rhetorica, Inc., which is a Los Angeles consulting and editing firm.

Lanham, in his writings, explains that our surroundings are completely occupied. For example, as students at a large university, we live in a digital age where there are so many distractions that toggle our minds in literally every direction. Our society has become so advanced that we can sit in the same spot and complete multiple tasks.

“Actual physical location threatens to evaporate everywhere we look. Information, we are everywhere taught, has annihilated distance. Surgeons can cut you open from a thousand miles away. Facsimile Las Vegas casinos deliver Rome and New York on the same daily walk. You don’t have to go to the office to go to the office. You can shop in your kitchen and go to school in your living room. And, sadly enough when you actually do go out shopping, one mall seems like another. For what actually matters, physicality doesn’t matter anymore” (Lanham, 2)

Unlike our ancient philosophers or ancestors, we do not have to dig for information. It is available to us through a plethora of sources whether that be the Internet or hard-copy books. After all, “the World Wide Web is now document of billions of pages long. And as if digital overload weren’t enough, printed books still pour from the presses: over 160, 000 new U.S. titles and editions in 2002” (Lanham, 7). As a result, according to Lanham, we do not live in the information economy. Instead we live in the economy of attention. In such an economy, there is a scarcity in human attention, and “it can only be the human attention needed to make sense of information” (Lanham, 7).

The economy of attention consists of mainly two things: stuff and fluff. Stuff is the data or substance that is available to use 24/7. We can access it anytime and from anywhere. On the other hand, fluff, according to Lanham is style. What needs to be done is to convert the stuff into fluff. Data needs to be transformed into information. We need to filter information, and the biggest filter that is necessary is the filter of style. “The utopia of perfect information brings with it a return of stylistic filtration, of, as it has traditionally been called in Western culture, rhetoric” (Lanham, 19).

Contrary to the Greek and Roman philosophers we studied over the past several weeks, Lanham provides a refreshing, more relatable perspective to our discussion of rhetoric. Instead of sticking to the dictionary definition of rhetoric being the art of speaking or persuasion, he brings a unique twist to it. Lanham believes rhetoric to be synonymous to the economy of attention. His belief is “if information is now our basic “stuff,” must not our thinking about human communication be economic thinking?” (Lanham, 21).

Even though Lanham shifts from the more didactic approach taken by the philosophers in our past readings, we continuously see links from Cicero’s De Oratore. Cicero spoke about the art an orator must follow.

That since all the business and art of an orator is divided into five parts, he ought first to find out what he should say; next, to dispose and arrange his matter, not only in a certain order, but with a sort of power and judgment; then to clothe and deck his thoughts with language; then to secure them in his memory; and lastly, to deliver them with dignity and grace. [143] ( XXXI, De Oratare)

A more modified version of this is seen in Lanham’s work as he talks about how the art of rhetoric consists of knowing “how to find arguments and how to arrange them” (24, Chapter 1). He goes into more detail about presentation and communication. He explains how “memory allow(s) you to pretend that you speak spontaneously. Delivery allow(s) you to distribute the message in person” (26, Lanham).  Like Cicero, Lanham, too believes that an orator must be well-learned in order to persuade.

With there being so many distractions around us, we truly do live in an attention economy. Whether we are online or watching television, there is something flashing in our eyes every five minutes craving our attention. With a surfeit of information surrounding is, the question becomes what will force a reader to read a certain book or blog. The writing must contain something unique, such as style, or fluff, that motivates one to either upon a book or click on the blog.

I feel Lanham does a great job relating this looking at the topic of rhetoric from a more economic perspective. Holding a passion for the environment, I was motivated to calculate my ecological footprint, as mentioned above. Speaking in more of a literal sense about “stuff”, we need to realize that the more we have, the more we hurt the Earth. Hardin was absolutely right, we truly do have a “Tragedy of the Commons”, because we do not think about what the subsequent consequences of our actions are going to be.

Due to our carelessness over the years, we constantly face an increasing rate of global warming. Former Vice President, Al Gore, brought this to the attention of the world during his years in office. He continued to support this campaign after serving as vice president. Gore aims to spread awareness through many mediums including his famous documentary the “Inconvenient Truth”.

Instead of trying to change our lifestyles, we continue to follow our practices. Regardless, we must take a stand to prevent and protect the Earth from deteriorating further. Whether or not we all are tree-huggers, we need to step up and take responsibility for this Earth because we only have one and we need to keep it.

Common Text Abbreviations

Recent statistics show that a teenager sends about an average of 2,000 texts per month. The top 50 words sent on these texts include “BRB” for be right back, or “LOL” for laugh out loud, or “OMG” for oh my god. To some, the internet is literally taking over the world, and people would rather type and talk in  abbreviations. Living in this fast-paced world, the youth today forget about the years ancient philosophers dedicated to composing such a rich language. Furthermore, these philosophers wrote scripts over scripts about the arts of writing and oratory.

Whether it be Aristotle and Plato in Greece or Cicero in Rome, these philosophers toiled to develop proper rhetoric. Born in 106 BC, Cicero is a Roman philosopher considered to be one of the greatest orators to date. In one of his famous works, the Catiline Orations, Cicero attacks Lucius Sergius Catilina by exposing his evil stratagems to the Senate of Rome.

In the Catiline Orations, Cicero exemplifies his oratorical skills. An orator, today, is defined in the Merriam-Webster as “one who delivers an oration”. Yet there are more attributes a person must acquire to be classified as a great orator. “A great orator must be a good man” (Ch 1, Quintilian’s Institutes of Oratory, Book 12) with integrity because he or she will defend what is right regardless of his or her beliefs. An orator must also be well-read whether that be understanding the laws, the procedures of the Senate, the terms of treaties, or other information related to the business of the state. In De Oratore, Cicero explains an orator fundamentally speaks to persuade the audience about the matters of concern, and he describes the process an orator must follow.

That since all the business and art of an orator is divided into five parts, he ought first to find out what he should say; next, to dispose and arrange his matter, not only in a certain order, but with a sort of power and judgment; then to clothe and deck his thoughts with language; then to secure them in his memory; and lastly, to deliver them with dignity and grace. [143] ( XXXI, De Oratare)

Cicero conglomerates each of these parts in his Catiline Orations. The debunker of Catiline causes a havoc in the city of Rome. After all, the elections are delayed and the consuls have gained absolute power to maintain order. Cicero gathers “the senate to meet in the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol, a place which was only used for this purpose on occasions of great danger” ( First Oration, Catiline Orations). Clearly, this scene illustrated is not a typical day in Rome.

In preparing for an oration, the first part is to invent thoughts to present. If Cicero has invited the Senate of Rome to the rarely visited temple of Jupiter, he clearly planned out what important details needed to be shared with the Senators. Cicero called the meeting after he received information on the nefarious acts of Catiline from Fulvia, who is a mistress of one of the conspirators with Catiline.

After figuring out the context, the next step, according to Cicero, is to set the material in such a way that it can be most persuasive. The senators are aware that they are present to strategize upon eradicating the danger set upon by Catiline, and Cicero furthers this common sentiment. He isolates Catiline out of the crowd as Cicero knows every man sitting in the room has anger towards Catiline. Cicero says, “Now, your country, which is the common parent of all of us, hates and fears you, and has no other opinion of you, than that you are meditating parricide in her case…” (First Oration).  Cicero belittles Catiline, along with creating a feeling of unity and power amongst the rest of the men sitting in the room.

Cicero also goes on to make himself an emblem of Rome. He implicitly reminds the senators that Rome is more than a piece of land; it is their motherland. The senate knows of the harms Catiline is bringing about, yet they chose to do nothing, which is unjust to the land that gave them everything. Cicero evokes the pathos of his audience by making them feel ashamed of themselves for not doing their duty.  He persuades the senate to think of themselves, not as individuals, but as a unit to act together against Catiline.

The art of oratory consists of using proper diction. Cicero provokes the audience through his language, by alluding to the holy spirit. Cicero references God to remind the audience the pious land of Rome is currently polluted. “O ye immortal gods, where on earth are we? in what city are we living? what constitution is ours?” (First Oration). A change must be brought about so that Rome could be restored back to its original condition. Cicero points out they cannot allow one man to cause “destruction and devastation [to] the temples of the immortal gods, the houses of the city, the lives of all the citizens; in short, all Italy” (First Oration) live.

The last part of Cicero’s formula is to commit the oration to memory and present it with grace. Examining the different illustrations available for the occurrence today, Cicero is shown gracefully standing with a perfectly straight posture maintaining eye contact with his audience. Nevertheless, before presenting, Cicero believes it is important to, first, have experience in writing as this will give him/her an advantage in speaking.

“As, when a boat has once been impelled forward, though the rowers suspend their efforts, the vessel herself still keeps her motion and course during the intermission of the impulse and force of the oars; so, in a continued stream of oratory, when written matter fails, the rest of the speech maintains a similar flow, being impelled by the resemblance and force acquired from what was written.” (XXXIII, De Oratore)

While reading Cicero’s works, one of the writings coming to my mind was Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech. Like the Catiline Orations, “I Have a Dream” was also a persuasive speech on the emancipation of African-Americans addressing the entire nation. This speech was a landmark for not just African-Americans, but to all of America. As mentioned above, a recurring theme throughout Cicero’s writing were the religious references to Rome being the land of the Gods. Similarly, King portrays America as the land of dreams, freedom, and opportunity. Both authors attempt to unite people to fight for the cause they believe in, to make their respective countries a better place to live.

I personally found Cicero’s work very helpful and meaningful. Being a biology major, writing is not one of my strengths. The tips Cicero shares are applicable to both writers and orators even today. Simple points like presenting gracefully seem intuitive. However, while actually presenting, this is something that definitely comes with practice.

In our class reading, Writing for the Web, Felder advises her audience to keep sentences to the point or use descriptive language that engages the audience. Cicero mentions the importance of proper syntax while dressing it up with precise language. His writings essentially say they same thing in different words, which makes them timeless. Because Cicero’s ideas can be used for a variety of mediums he would not know would exist centuries later, I feel that they should be untouched as they are complete.

Plato and Aristotle in the School of Athens

You can fish for a man and feed him for a day. Or you can teach a man how to fish and he can feed himself for life. The latter part of this statement describes why many educational institutions existing today are shaped as Socratic seminars. The educator wants to challenge his or her disciples to critically analyze the matter of discussion, allowing him or her to think out of the box and come up with answers on their own. The Socratic seminar method is designed to prepare students for the big test, the test of living in the “real world.” Socrates, who designed this Socratic seminar, passed this legacy on to his own disciple, Plato, who then passed it on to his student, Aristotle.

A student of Socrates, Plato, is an ancient Greek philosopher that was born in Athens around 428 BCE. Upon coming across Socrates, Plato realized that Socrates was his mentor. Plato quickly grasped many of the techniques used by Socrates whether that be his philosophy or his manners of debate, which is clearly evident in most of his writing.  Plato created his drama, Phaedrus, in approximately 370 BC. It is considered one of his significant works because he wrote this in his transition period where he was solidifying his own philosophies yet the voice of Socrates was underlying in the background.
The disciple of Plato, Aristotle, is also one of the most well-known ancient philosophers. He was born in 384 BCE in Stagira, which is an island in Greece. Aristotle is recognized for creating the foundations of Western philosophy which exist today. One of his most popular writings, Rhetoric, is considered one of the greatest works on the art of persuasion. Written between 367 to 322 BC, this work was especially important to Aristotle because along with logic and dialectic, he considers rhetoric the third main element to philosophy.

In both the Rhetoric and Phardeus, the theme of the art of rhetoric is ongoing throughout the writings. Looking specifically at Plato’s work, one of his main principles is that one should, first, establish a strong connection with the truth and the self, or soul. He or she must realize what may be beneficial or harmful for the soul, and this should guide his or her behaviors.

Until a man knows the truth of the several particulars of which he is writing or speaking, and is able to define them as they are, and having defined them again to divide them until they can be no longer divided, and until in like manner he is able to discern the nature of the soul, and discover the different modes of discourse which are adapted to different natures, and to arrange and dispose them in such a way that the simple form of speech may be addressed to the simpler nature, and the complex and composite to the more complex nature—until he has accomplished all this, he will be unable to handle arguments according to rulesof art, as far as their nature allows them to be subjected to art, either for the purpose of teaching or persuading (Phaedrus, pg 16).

But the question naturally remains, what is truly the art of persuasion and what is the best way to persuade? Like in almost every branch of academia, there is debate on which method is most rooted, scientific, and useful for modern times.  The same is especially true for this portion of the Rhetoric, which Aristotle begins by explaining the difference between two methods of persuasion–rhetoric and dialectic.  Rhetoric is the art of persuasive writing and thinking, without engaging one’s emotions, as they tend to cloud one’s judgement.  Dialectic is the art of persuasion through intense investigation and discussion.  Both methods have their strengths and weaknesses, but Aristotle chooses to expand on rhetoric.

Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.  This is not a function of any other art.  Every other art can instruct or persuade about its own particular subject-matter; for instance, medicine about what is healthy and unhealthy, geometry about the properties of magnitudes, arithmetic about numbers, and the same is true of other arts and sciences.  But rhetoric we look upon as the power of observing the means of persuasion on almost any subject presented to us; and that is why we say that, in its technical character, it is not concerned with any special or definite class of subjects (Rhetoric, Ch. 2, Book 1).

According to Aristotle, rhetoric is useful for four key reasons.  First, rhetoric is based entirely on truth and facts alone, and therefore, naturally “prevail over their opposites” (Ch 1, Book 1).  Second, only “notions possessed by everybody”, (Ch 1, Book 1) are used.  Third, the persuader is so clear on the facts, that he or she is able to utilize them being on either side of the question, as long as people are not being persuaded wrongly.  Fourth, one’s speech is always held in highest regard because it is one of the greatest powers that one possesses.  Therefore, one should never use their speech wrongly, as it can bring the greatest of benefits when used rightly, but also cause great harm when used wrongly.  Therefore, because an extreme notion of respect is kept at the forefront of persuasion, Aristotle believes rhetoric to be most useful.

However, of the many methods of persuasion, “some belong strictly to the art of rhetoric and some do not” (Ch 2, Book 1).  Before a person begins employing a method of persuasion, Aristotle shares that he must have (1) character that deems his speech respect and credibility, (2) emotions to engage his audience, and (3) proving the truth through persuasively using arguments.  Ultimately, Aristotle states very clearly, that regardless of which method of persuasion one utilizes, the reasoning must be very logical, human character must be taken into consideration, and human emotions must be understood.

The breadth of logical reasoning, and the extent of explanation helped me to realize how debate, reasoning, and persuasion is not only an art, but also a science.  One must not only consider the actual subject at question, but also each of the parties involved, their nature, and how to best reach their soul through careful crafting of the facts.  I learned how Aristotle stressed that the power of words is as strong as one’s physical power.  Therefore, one must choose their every word wisely, and must be a powerful communicator.  I feel this is extremely vital today, in a world that is increasingly interconnected, and considered by many to be “flat”.  Unfortunately, however, we have lost strength in our communication, and instead choose to relay messages only via technological advances.  Perhaps additional examples throughout this article would help the common reader better understand Aristotle’s message, and would try to implement in his or her daily life.

Danah Boyd speaks at ETech

    Want to learn how to bake a fudge marbled cake? Or do you want to hear about the interior details of the Hagia Sophia? Anything and almost everything can be found on blogs today whether that be related to skiing, cooking, traveling, etc.

Danah Boyd, who is currently a Senior Researcher at Microsoft Research, dives into the social status of blogs that exist today. Boyd holds a PhD from the School of Information at University of California-Berkeley. She researches how young people incorporate social media into their day-to-day lives. Boyd has studied a plethora of social media sites including Twitter, Friendster, Myspace, etc.

Blogs, according to Boyd, have been and are described in a contradictory manner. In her paper, “A Blogger’s Blog”, Boyd wishes to debunk the misconceptions people hold about blogs. Instead of attempting to extrapolate a definition of the word “blog” or “blogging”, Boyd proposes scholars to ruminate blogging as not one but a multitude of heterogeneous practices.

One of Boyd’s first goals in the paper is to convey how advertisers, researchers, and, overall, the social media are responsible for shaping the conceptualizations that exist around the idea blogs. Secondly, she wishes to relay the thought that “blogs must be conceptualized as both a medium and a bi-product of expression.”

From the time blogs were initially created up until today, the definition of a blog tends to vary with different parties. Each party goes on to manipulate the definition according to their given product.

The most explicit definitions of blogging come from the companies who built tools to support it. These definitions are devised as marketing pitches, intended to explain why people should try their service and thus the practice embedded. When they launched in October 1999, Blogger described its product as “an automated weblog publishing tool,” assuming that users had pre-existing knowledge of weblogs. Six months later, their tagline became “push button publishing” and the description of their tool changed to “Blogger offers you instant communication power by letting you post your thoughts to the web whenever the urge strikes.”

Whether it be distinct websites, dictionaries, or encyclopedias, the definitive definition of a blog changes with the context it is being used in, “indicating that no consistent definition is operating amongst researchers.” As a result, often blogs are conceptualized with diaries, such as in “Would You Let 900 Million People Read Your Diary?”. By thinking of blogs as “digitial diaries”, one is undermining the concept of a blog as well as preventing themselves from apprehending blogging.

In trying to explain the idea of a blog to a beginner, it makes sense to use metaphors to improve the understanding of the newcomer. As a result, “people consistently frame blogs in terms of diaries and journals, journalism, bookmarking, and note taking.”  For example, Merriam-Webster defines blog as a “a web site that contains an online personal journal with reflections, comments, and often hyperlinks provided by the writer.” However, the problem that arises with using metaphors is it often limits the newcomer’s ability to assess what the concept truly is. Often, the actual concept of a blog is forgotten; furthermore, metaphors like “web diary” or “amateur journalism” are not the same way to frame blogs.

The misunderstanding of blogs is evident in the social media today. According to Boyd, When national newspapers, such as the New York Times, describe blogs as “web diaries”, there is a clear bias that seems a bit condescending. To the surprise of many people, bloggers are aware that they are releasing their statements publicly.  As a result of such incidents, a convoluted relationship forms between bloggers and journalists, who attempt to reduce the significance of their counterpart’s work.

According to Boyd, in order to understand blogging, it is vital to turn to the bloggers, not those who evaluate blogging. Even though metaphors can be used by bloggers, they, immediately,  “try to explain the differences.” To a blogger, his or her blog gives them a sense of self because it is their online face. “It is their home and other are invited to come over…”, it is their form of expressing their thoughts and interests to others who may hold similar thoughts. Similar to how one decorates the space he or she live in, bloggers can digitally decorate and meet new people virtually. Unfortunately, the borders placed around blogs are “socially constructed.” There is no authority who says what one blogger posted is incorrect or correct.

Boyd strongly believes the problem arising with analyzing blogs “is that they are both the product of blogging and the medium through which the blogger produces their expressions…blogs are the bi-product of expression and the medium itself.” There are many different mediums that exist whether that be paper, to express feelings through writing, or language, to express feelings verbally. Boyd explains how mediums are flexible. “Mediums are partially distinguished by their format, but the format does not define the medium.”  Blogs are simply not one more form of communication available for people to use today, but they are a medium through which people can communicate.