The famous Roman rhetorician, Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, describes Roman philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero, in his Institutes of Oratory as the “perfect orator.” Despite having claimed that perfection in oratory is nearly impossible, it seems that Quintilian made an exception for Cicero. Quintilian’s book outlines the qualities of an effective orator. Only good men can become good orators because, unlike bad men, their minds are not “obsessed with obtaining their vice and satisfaction.” Quintilian states that you must also speak with eloquence and honest feeling. Since “eloquence comes from the deepest source of wisdom,” Quintilian observes that the art of oratory is fit for philosophers (like Cicero). People with years of experience speaking and who hold vast amounts of knowledge in their head make for the best orators.
Bust of Cicero
However, simply having knowledge about a great many topics is not enough. Quintilian points out that while dialectic may be useful, the orator shouldn’t bog the audience down with facts, but “must move and delight them.” Instead, Quintilian stresses that good oratory rests on logic and ethical science. In other words, a good orator appeals to facts as well as the audience’s emotions.
In a long and passionate speech, Cicero condemns the treacherous actions of Lucius Catilina and advises the Roman Senate to follow with just punishment. The accounts of the trial reveal Cicero’s skill as a master orator. Throughout the trial, Cicero employs a number of rhetorical strategies in order to convince the Senate that the traitor, Catilina, must be banished from the city along with all of his accomplices.
In his own book, De Oratore, Cicero clearly lists the business or art of an orator into five parts:
- Find out what to say
- Dispose and arrange your matter
- Clothe and deck your thoughts with language
- Secure them in your memory
- Deliver them with dignity and grace
During the trial, Cicero executes these with ease while, in addition, utilizes a number of rhetorical strategies to convince his audience. Cicero repeatedly asks rhetorical questions which call to question Catalina’s loyalty. He asks, “do not the looks and countenances of this venerable body here present, have any effect on you?” and “What life are you leading?” While effectively shaming Catalina, Cicero’s questions also serve to capture the emotions of the audience too.
Cicero takes careful consideration to lay out the structure of his speech in order to persuade the audience. Part XXXI of De Oratore, states that your must provide backup info and refute what the other person says. Cicero presents specific evidence against Catalina in the form of a rhetorical question.
Do you recollect that on the 21st of October I said in the senate, that on a certain day, which was to be the 27th of October, C. Manlius, the satellite and servant of your audacity, would be in arms? Was I mistaken, Catiline, not only in so important, so atrocious, so incredible a fact, but, what is much more remarkable, in the very day? I said also in the senate that you had fixed the massacre of the nobles for the 28th of October, when many chief men of the senate had left Rome, not so much for the sake of saving themselves as of checking your designs. Can you deny that on that very day you were so hemmed in by my guards and my vigilance, that you were unable to stir one finger against the republic; when you said that you would be content with the flight of the rest, and the slaughter of us who remained?
Over the course of the trial, Cicero shifts between cross-examining Catalina and appealing to the Senate. His formulaic approach, eloquent delivery, and use of rhetorical questions all help to build momentum in his speech. Like a boat moves forward by its rowers even after the rowers stopped rowing, so too does Cicero’s speech capture the members of the Senate (De Oratore, part XXXII).
Cicero reminds Catalina, as well as the Senate, that these types of crimes are punishable by death. Cicero lists other similar instances and explains to Catalina that he should be lucky that he hasn’t been executed already for such treasonous acts. At the same time, Cicero gives a subtle nudge to the Senate to take action by asking another rhetorical question addressed to Catalina: “For these twenty days [we] have been allowing the edge of the Senate’s authority to grow blunt.” This certainly appeals to the audience’s attention, and later Cicero imposes his own solution to banish Catalina and his accomplices from the city.
But if he banishes himself; and takes with him all his friends, and collects at one point all the ruined men from every quarter, then not only will this full-grown plague of the republic be extinguished and eradicated, but also the root and seed of all future evils
Cicero’s demonstration of oratory is not too far off from another great mind of the ancient world. The great Greek philosopher, Socrates, demonstrated equally effective oratory during his own trial. Despite losing his life, Socrates employed rhetorical strategics not dissimilar to those used by Cicero. Both asked rhetorical questions to the audience along with relying heavily on logos and ethos.
Trial of Socrates
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