For Lack of A Better Word

Because technology is constantly being upgraded, Electronic Literature Collection archives various forms of electronic literature in order to preserve these forms of expression even when their supportive technology becomes obsolete.

In the last few weeks, I have looked at modern media and how it has changed the way that we interact and communicate. However, in the latest article that I read, I realized that I should have been looking at this technology, not solely as communication, but as forms of art and literature. Most likely due to the materials that I had been presented with throughout elementary and high school, I now realized that I needed to adjust my perception of “quality” literature in order to include and understand the wide subject of electronic literature.   N. Katherine Hayles’s article, “Electronic Literature: What is it?” explores some of the fundamental and important definitions and examples of electronic literature as well as outline the needs and requirements for electronic literature in terms of preservation and criticism. Hayles emphasizes the “hybrid” nature of electronic literature, explaining that while it is creating its own structure and environment, it still draws on the structures and examples that centuries of print literature had provided:

“Readers come to digital work with expectations formed by print, including extensive and deep tacit knowledge of letter forms, print conventions, and print literary modes. Of necessity, electronic literature must build on these expectations even as it modifies and transforms them. At the same time, because electronic literature is normally created and performed within a context of networked and programmable media, it is also informed by the powerhouses of contemporary culture…In this sense electronic literature is…composed of parts taken from diverse traditions that may not always fit together”(A Context for Electronic Literature)

One form of electronic literature that Hayles mentions, Flash poems, take the inventive environment that poetry has created in the past, and uses

color, sounds, and movement to create a new way to experience poetry. Flash poetry provides a clear example of the “hybrid nature” of electronic literature. One such poem, “the Dreamlife of Letters” by Bryan Kim Stefans, uses Flash poetry to visually show through graphics the meaning of words. Stefans gives words in alphabetical order, but using motion and color, visually shows the meaning of the words. For example, for the letter “I”, Stefans uses the word of “ink.” After “ink” appears, the word appears to smear across the screen, much in the way that wet ink would across the page. This image of ink is one that humans have experienced with, as pens we tend to similarly smudge and smear. The reader is able to connect with this poem because it uses images and ideas that we are extremely familiar with.  Flash poetry, like printed poetry, is used to create deeper meaning through imagery and word choice. However, unlike printed literature, Flash poetry , does not need to rely solely on the words in order to convey meaning. Using color and movement, Flash poetry displays the meaning by creating images that humans can easily connect with, without needing to have an extensive mastery of poetry or language.

Is it time to incorporate “playtime” and “games” into formal education?

Video games aren’t often seen as tools for learning, since as Ian Bogost claims, are mainly associated with “leisure” and “playtime.” However, with the majority of communication occurring through the use of images and videos, it would be narrow minded not to consider the use of video games as a new way to both educate and communicate.

In his article, “The Rhetoric of Video Games”, Ian Bogost defines the rhetoric and importance of video games, showing that it has the potential to be a powerful tool in education. He shows, using examples of games such as Animal Crossing, that much larger systems, concepts, and skills, can be experienced, understood, and comprehended by the gamer. Video games create a space and certain rules that force a player to experience a setting in a particular way, drawing attention to certain aspects of an environment. It is in this way that video games, through their own individual type of rhetoric, are able to make arguments: “its arguments are made not through the construction of words or images, but through the authorship of rules of behavior, the construction of dynamic models”(125). Bogost argues that video games provide a new perspective on learning; if we are able to move “playtime” and “games” back into the classroom, students could truly benefit from the experiential learning platform that video games provide.

Bogost’s claim that video games have the ability to “make claims about the cultural, social, or material aspects of human experience”(123), reminded me of a game that I heard of called Bioshock. This game, along with its sequel, use the setting of a failed city of Rapture, a city that started out as a “utopian” society but ultimately fell due to the greed and corruption of its inhabitants.  Along with the social and political commentary that the setting provides, the procedures and the constraints of the game play also force the player to make moral decisions, based on the choice between mercy or revenge, all which ultimately determine the player’s fate in the end of the game. While the players understand that this fantasy game is just a fabrication and an exaggeration of  a certain social structure, the players moral actions within the game are able to allow the player to experientially and symbolically learn the consequences of our actions.

I believe that video games can provide a much better and more effective learning experience, if presented in the correct way. In games such as Animal Crossing and Bioshock, the the player is able to understand through experience, the workings and consequences of moral and financial decisions. Video games allow for players to become invested, sometimes even emotionally, into the lessons or ideas that the game contains. Through experience and play, the gamer is learning in hands on way that simply is not possible in the traditional classroom that force students to listen behind a desk. Video games provide a means of learning that is asking the student to experience the lesson.

Writing outside the classroom or library is a portal for writers to connect more deeply with their subject

From the scary moment in elementary school when we learn what an essay is to the late nights in college when we are finishing up our research papers, most students have been bombarded with different lessons and rules about the structure of an essay. From the outline to the rough draft to the final paper, there is a specific process that we have habitually followed through years of schooling. While we may venture outside the classroom to perform research or gain inspiration, eventually, most writers will retreat back inside their rooms or the library for the actual writing. While this is the norm for most student writers, there may be a way for writers to write with a more authority and authenticity than they could if they wrote solely in the classroom or the dorm.

Olin Bjork and John Pedro-Schwartz’s article, “Writing in the Wild: A Paradigm for Mobile Composition” calls for a new writing process that allows the writer to be more connected to their writing material. This process requires the writers to write and publish in spaces that contain the object of their writing. They argue “that students can better perceive-and learn to challenge-their social, cultural, and historical locations when they research, write, and even publish on location”(225).  Through a deeper connection to the the material, these writers will be utilize and respond to the different “rhetorical opportunities”(234) that these spaces contain.

I found this article interesting, not only because it offers a new standard for writing, but because I feel that the younger generations are well on their way to learning to “write in the wild.” Forms of social media, namely Twitter and Facebook, are, at their core, reactions to the outside world. While this is not the same as Bjork’s and Pedro-Schwartz’s proposal, I believe that this generation’s obsession with social media provides a platform where students will adapt more easily to this new writing process.

Oratory, according by Quintilian, is an art form that requires an ethical code. Those who wish to master rhetoric and engage in oratory are expected to abide by a set of morals. This is to be expected within the rhetoric of the spoken word. We hope for our politicians to adhere a basic moral code, to not be hypocritical when they talk about improvement. We want the news anchors to tell us the truth; we want to be able to receive the news from a reliable source. While it is evident that there is an expectation of ethical behavior for orators and public speakers, one would not think the same of graphic designers of data displays.

Charles Kostelnick, in his chapter on the different aspects of data display design, discusses the ethical responsibility of the designers of images and graphics that display data. These designers must keep in mind, according to Kostelnick, three key aspects when designing a graphic: audience, purpose, and context. Similar to oral rhetoric, these three aspects help create an effective and clear data display. Kostelnick emphasizes the importance of understanding the rhetorical environment that accompanies the graphic in question. There are countless options when designing these graphics but there are specific measures that need to be take in order to maximize the effectiveness of a single image: “Using the rhetorical situation to guide your design process will help you manage this freedom, giving you the control you need to create an effective display for your readers”(247).

While the majority of  Kostelnick’s chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding the rhetorical context in order to create an effective display of data, one of the more interesting things that I took from the article was his mention of ethical responsibilities on behalf of the designers. We are constantly surrounded by different types of data displays, whether it be on the news as a graph showing the latest voting tendencies or in a textbook, revealing the trends of an economy through a line graph. Designers can easily manipulate any part of their graphic to draw or detract attention away from certain elements, significantly altering our perception of a collection of data. It would be one thing, if the audience was aware of the persuasion or bias that the designer was hoping to achieve. But the fact remains that when reviewing a collection of data, we tend to rely on a graphic display for an accurate and effective understanding of that data. Thus, according to Kostelnick, the designers of these graphics need to adhere to a moral code:

“And with that power comes a responsibility to your readers. Emphasizing some patterns or data can make a huge difference in the way readers interpret the information–so much so that as a designer you need to be wary about using emphasis strategies that might deceive your readers. You have an ethical responsibility to help them make sound judgements and decisions.”(268)

As we are increasingly becoming an “attention economy”, as discussed by Richard Lanham, our attention is becoming a valuable commodity. We are increasingly drawn to other forms of communication outside the written, specifically images or videos, in order to obtain or enhance information we seek. Just as choosing the exact right words for a speech in order to provide a clear message is important for the oral communicator, it is equally important for a data display designer to master the rhetoric of visual display in order to achieve clarity and understanding. Although we take for granted a great deal of the images that we process everyday, the designers behind the image are very much aware of the rhetorical situation and strive to design their graphics around the needs of each individual situation.

With the importance of visual communication on the rise, there are new moral obligations and expectations for data software designers.

Since the rise of the Internet, information has increasingly been transferred in a visual and interactive way. With a new emphasis on visual communication, users are obtaining more control over data design, signaling a exchange of power from the designer to the user.  In turn, the user has not only a greater influence on the rhetoric of data design, but new ethical responsibilities as well.

Charles Kostelnick, a professor of English at Iowa State University, examines various aspects of the rhetoric of visual display. He looks at different types of rhetoric and how they approach the issues of perspective and clarity. For instance, he looks at the rhetoric of science and its emphasis on efficiency; this type of rhetoric upholds the idea that audiences are universal and aims to give “the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink the the smallest space”(116).

However, Kostelnick notes that there is a crucial problem with this approach. Clarity, especially with the evolution of technology, is not a single faceted idea: “Far from being simple and straightforward, clarity in data design is multifaceted and sometimes ambiguous and elusive concept”(128). Kostelnick maintains that the rhetoric of data design includes the rhetoric of adaptation which “celebrates that different readers have different interpretive frameworks that profoundly influence what they find clear and credible in date displays”(119). The rhetoric of adaptation explores the historical, cultural, and social context of data design, further complicating the definition of clarity.

Kostelnick also addresses the participatory culture of the Internet and how that has affected data design. Due to the fact that the interpretation of  data is a “largely social act”(121), the art of data design also becomes a community based discussion. From this perspective, the definition of clarity changes:

“If we regard data displays as socially constructed conventions, clarity depends on readers’ experiences in disciplines and organizations but also as members of public discourse communities that enculturate readers in forms of data visualization through schools, popular culture and news media”(121).

Kostelnick also emphasizes the change of power in data design. Because of the social nature of data design rhetoric, the power of the data design has been transferred to the users. According to Kostelnick, this creates opportunities for users to change the norms for visual literacy, allowing for older and previously deemed difficult types of data displays to regain relevance.

Although the transfer of influence from the designer to the user has its benefits, there is also a new set of issues and responsibilities that fall upon the user as they embrace their roles as designers.

One of the most intriguing things that I took from Kostelnick’s article is the idea of moral obligation on the part of the designer.Because of graphs and data are often associated with scientific or statistical fact, readers often place faith and trust into these graphical designs. Kostelnick describes this issue as an “ethical component”(118) within the discussion of rhetoric data design:

“This rational, efficent rhetoric of data design embodies an intrinsic ethical component because it implies that readers deserve a full, unadulterated disclosure of the date and that designers have a moral imperative to provide it”(118).

This idea of moral obligation, coupled with the fact that the population of visual data designers is increasingly including users of the Internet, creates a problem. Can there really be an expectation for users to uphold their moral responsibilities when it comes to graphical design? With tutorials and programs, it is easy for anyone with a computer to create a graph. With a wider use of these programs along with the significant increase and importance of visual design within the participatory nature of the Internet, readers will need to take extra caution while interpreting visual data. Credibility is now a significant issue in the rhetoric of data design. Every graph or statistic on the Internet needs to be considered carefully; because of the transfer of power from the designers to the users, the credibility and trustworthiness of graphs and statistics needs to be put under surveillance.

It is common knowledge that different authors have defining styles of writing. Hemingway was known for his use of simple and accessible language. Mark Twain was known for his social satire and his use of dialect to create memorable characters. When analyzing great works of literature, critics look to these styles in order to explain larger themes. Throughout my English classes, I have analyzed literature in this way. After reading Svenja Adolphs’s discussion of electronic text analysis and how it can apply to literature analysis, I realized that linguistic choices and patterns within an author’s language hold extreme importance to the context and understanding of a work as a whole.

Context plays an important role in the understanding of language patterns.

If you asked me to connect literature and electronic textual analysis a few days ago, I would have been at a loss for words. Just the very sounds of these two different terms seem to represent two polar opposites. However, according to Adolphs, this sort of analysis can reveal much more about a textual work than can be deciphered through a sequential analysis of the language. For example, Adolphs points out that by analyzing a word in relation to another word within the same context, we are able to learn more about the word’s importance and meaning: “”Adding a context word to a concordance search allows us to study patterns that are not restricted to a continuous sequence”(115).

Looking beyond literature or even the written word, electronic textual analysis proves the importance of context by looking into the way that our brain understands and processes language. Often phrases or cliches that we use are stored in our brain as a single item. Adolphs emphasizes the important role that concordance analysis has within the study of language patterns:

“Concordance analysis has a key place in language description and lexicography, especially because such an analysis can reveal patters of co-occurrence and association that not only challenge some traditional beliefs about language as a slot and filler system, but also lead to insights that are not easily generated on the basis of intuition alone”(127)

Contextual analysis is now expanding beyond the larger and more general spectrum of written themes and styles. By looking at the context of specific word pairings and associations, we are now able to further understand and interpret the meaning and importance of individual linguistic styles. Adolphs uses the example of the character Anna from Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina. We are able to assess her character merely by the words that precede and follow her name within the text. This is a simple example that demonstrates the potential of using context in electronic textual analysis.

Language patterns, frequencies, and word clusters all have an important role to play in both an analysis of a work and the way we use spoken words. Looking at semantic prosodies can “be useful in uncovering the speaker’s real attitude even where he is at pains to conceal it”(142). In addition, we need to understand that we learn and use “multi-word”(122) units everyday With the electronic text analysis, it is easier than before to understand context within individual words, proving useful not only in literature, but in also in our use of spoken language.

Anyone who has ever used a search engine, such as Google or Bing, to look up information knows that there is a vast amount of information circulating the Internet. Even when narrowing a topic down by typing in a keyword, the results can still be overwhelming. Svenja Adolphs addresses how electronic textual analysis works and why it is still important, even with the changing language structures supported by the Internet.

The Internet, which is quickly becoming a integral tool with which we communicate, uses its own unique language. As Adolphs points out, it is difficult to use traditional methods of textual analysis and study because the Internet’s language is not consistent at all. Furthermore, the Internet uses tools that transcend the sometimes narrow meanings of words. Through images and videos, the Internet is changing the way we communicate:

“Even if we did know the broad categories in which different internet texts would fall, we may not be able to determine their orgin, thus losing important contextual information such as the first language of the autor for example. In addition, the consistency of of the texts themselves may mean that a purely textual analysis might be problematic. This is because many texts on the internet use hyperlinks and images as part of their meaning construction”(73).

Sites such as Facebook and Twitter are changing both communication and language

Some of the more important ideas that I took away from Adolphs’s book were focused on representation and context in relation to the Internet. Since the Internet gave us blogging, Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr etc, sharing information and ideas has never been easier. It becomes easy for an article that appears on a notoriously biased political blog to be shared through different followers, bloggers, users etc,  until it appears on a site that has a completely different readership. The context of the writing is lost and its meaning changes.  If users wish to achieve accurate and effective communication, electronic textual analysis needs to keep in mind the importance of context and the way information is shared.

One of the best examples to show how languages and methods of communication are changing is the idea of the “meme”. Most people think of memes as images or videos with a caption or words. In actuality, the meme is a simply any idea or concept that is passed from person to person. Through the Internet, blogs, emails, videos, etc, these ideas can be passed rather rapidly. With the Internet’s language constantly changing, slang and lingo is constantly fading in and out of style, making it  difficult to define and analyze. It is still important, however, to understand the ways language is changing on the Internet. Since the majority of our communication is now occuring electronically, understanding of electronic text is crucial in understanding modern communication.

One of the biggest criticisms that America faces is the idea that our society is too materialistic. There is always a nicer car, a new phone, a bigger house etc. Wealth was and still is dependent on the amount of property a person owns. However, according to Richard Lanham, the truly valuable commodities are changing. Instead of putting stock in “stuff” as we used to, Lanham believes that within an informational society such as ours, the new and valuable commodity is human attention.

This idea that the meaning of value is changing drastically, as “stuff” becomes less important and information, knowledge, and design (“non-stuff”) become extremely important can be hard to swallow:

“We see this synthetic reality everywhere nowadays, from TV commercials, to scientific visualization, computer games to military training. In this world, every element has been created from specific information keyboarded by master illusionists. Made objects, from buildings to airplanes, find their beginning and central reality in computer-assisted design and manufacture. The life-giving act inheres in designing the object on a digital screen”(5).

What used to be classified as artificial is now replacing the value we used to afford the “real” world. We would like to think that we are well connected to the physical world; however, in an age where information is king and the Internet is the source for more and more knowledge and information, we have to admit that our values and perspectives have changed.

In a world of many distractions, rhetoric needs to attract and persuade.

How much have we changed? Is the way that we learn and interact really all that different before this time of information overload? Thinking in terms of growth and knowledge, we haven’t changed where it counts. Rhetoric is still a vital part of social interaction. It still can be defined as “the art of persuasion”; however, it has adapted.  There are more outlets for rhetoric. In this age of information and technology, more and more methods of expression are utilized everyday: Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, Pinterest to name a few. These methods of expression are necessary as the amount of information continues to grow. According to Lanham, these modes of expression are necessary to keep up with the flow of information: “the kinds of information vary, as do the kinds of expression, but the one will continue to demand the other”(19). All of these things create and build upon the “cultural conversation” that Lanham refers to.

The art of rhetoric, I believe, has always been a “cultural conversation.” All of new types of social media thrive on people’s attention and their reactions to them. People build off of others creativity as everyone fights for attention. The creative are competitively inspired by others. This is no different than the rhetoric that Lanham describes: “Rhetorical invention was this kind of organized creativity. It coaxed chance, planned for improvisation”(25). Rhetoric still aims to persuade the public. The main challenge for the modern orator is to keep up and overcome the plethora of distractions that can claim the public’s attention.

The power of words has not diminished over the centuries. Language remains a powerful weapon in today’s society. In a world obsessed with communication, the art of writing and oration are talents that the ambitious aim to perfect. So the ultimate question becomes: what makes a great orator? Are they born or are they made?  These are the questions that Quintilian and Cicero address as they aim to form an image of the ideal speaker.

Quintilian maintains in his Institutes of Oratory that only a good man can perform the moral duties bestowed upon an orator. He believes that “no man will ever be thoroughly accomplished in eloquence who has not gained a deep insight into the impulses of human nature and formed is moral character on the precept of others and on his own reflection”(Quintilian, 12.2). Only good men can become true orators because they incorporate their words into their own lives. In other words, they provide proof of their virtue and authenticity.

“Will not an orator have to speak much of justice, fortitude, abstinence, temperance, and piety? Yet the good man, who has a knowledge of these virtues, not by sound and name only, not as heard merely by the ear to be repeated by the tongue, but who has embraced them in his heart and thinks in conformity with them, will have no difficulty in conceiving proper notions about them and will express sincerely what he thinks”(12.2, 17).

Similar to Quintilian, Cicero, in De Oratore, demands virtuous action from an orator. Virtuous and good men can be orators; however, maintaining virtue and goodness requires dedication and cultivation throughout a lifetime: “…certain persons have noticed what men of eloquence practised of their own accord, and formed rules accordingly; so that eloquence has not sprung from art, but art from eloquence”(Cicero, XXXII). Virtuous men provide proof of their authenticity, allowing audiences to react positively to their words.

Virtue and honor, ever important in Roman society, are issues addressed in the first oration of Cicero and Catiline. Cicero is able to discredit Catiline by citing all of the dishonorable and malicious actions that Catiline has performed. Looking beyond political agendas, Cicero reveals Catiline’s dishonorable nature, labeling him an enemy to the Republic: “You are summoning to destruction and devastation the temple of the immoral gods, the houses of the city, the lives of all the citizens; in short, all Italy”(Cicero, 5). This oration is based on the argument that Catiline’s very character is violent and immoral. By painting such a negative image of Catiline, readers and listeners of this speech grow more confident in Cicero’s own character. Cicero repeatedly references Catiline’s crimes against Rome itself, revealing his concern for the Republic over himself. This creates an image of a virtuous and selfless man, a man who listeners will be more inclined to believe because of his virtuous intentions. Cicero’s orations have remained memorable examples because of their power to influence. Cicero uses human morality as an argument, not only to discredit Catiline, but to emphasize his own credibility.

Martin Luther King Jr.

One of the most memorable orators of recent history was Martin Luther King Jr. Almost everyone in the United States is familiar with his famous “I Have A Dream” speech. During that moment in history, King was able to connect with his audiences in a powerful way, a way that sets him apart from others of that time. In an article reflecting on King’s power as an orator, Scott Eblin identifies several qualities that allowed King to be a great speaker. Among these, he lists authenticity and connection, powerful qualities that allow King’s speeches to remain memorable to this day. Both of these qualities relate to Quintilian and Cicero’s assertions that a good man must cultivate and practice his virtues, as they are integral to his identity as an orator. King was able to connect with his audiences and was able to establish himself as a credible speaker because he had experienced the injustices that he addresses in his speeches. He had been arrested several times but maintained his message of peaceful protesting of racism and discrimination. In this respect, King fits Quintilian description of a model orator as a man who proved “himself a true statesman, not by discussions in retirement, but by personal experience and exertions in public life”(Quintilian, 12.2).

Proof and authenticity  in my opinion, have gained importance in the last few years. With the abundance of information that circulates, the truth can be hard to find. People look for trust and authenticity and feel drawn to people who embody these qualities. It is the speakers who connect with their audiences, who can share experiences and speak of them, both clearly and eloquently, that become “great” orators.

All human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reason, passion, and desire

Why does Aristotle still prove relevant? Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric has stood the test of time, still holding true to this day. Aristotle has endured because he had a insightful understanding of the way the human mind perceives the world. His definition of rhetoric addresses both the logical tendencies of rhetoric as well as our inclination to follow instincts. Using both of these aspects of the human mind, Aristotle develops his argument by centering the basis of rhetoric on the concept of persuasion.

It is clear, then, that rhetorical study, in its strict sense, is concerned with the modes of persuasion. Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration, since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to be demonstrated…The true and the approximately true are apprehended by the same faculty; it may also be noted that men have a sufficient natural instinct for what is true, and usually do arrive at the truth.

According to Aristotle, the very core of rhetoric is persuasion. Everything else surrounding the art of rhetoric is “merely accessory”. Aristotle had a firm belief in the power of demonstration, maintaining that it was a necessary tool in order to master the art of rhetoric. We are inclined to accept the truth if we can see it with our eyes. The power of demonstration is crucial to our understanding of persuasion.

Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated. The orator’s demonstration is an enthymeme, and this is, in general, the most effective of the modes of persuasion. It follows plainly, therefore, that he who is best able to see how and from what elements a syllogism is produced will also be best skilled in the enthymeme.

It is easy to see the relevance of Aristotle’s argument in today’s media. If you turn on any news channel, you will not get a straight account of the news. Bias is everywhere. Anchors and journalists are attempting to persuade their audiences into believing their own perspective. Looking at our own political system, our presidential candidates prove their persuasive abilities during the debate and usually are rewarded for their skill in rhetoric with a victory. While technologies may have changed since Aristotle’s time, our methods of effective rhetoric haven’t. Persuasion is still at the center of the art of rhetoric.

Boyd’s article, “A Blogger’s Blog: Exploring the Definition of a Medium” attempts to answer a difficult question. What is a blog? Despite the enormous numbers of blogs that circulate the web, it becomes difficult to concretely define the term. Boyd argues that a blog is a mode of communication, a means to self express on the web. Blogs have come to encompass so much, from online journals to recipe forums etc.  Boyd’s article seems to conclude that the concept of blogging cannot be concretely defined. Blogs serve as a means for self publication with the opportunity to share ideas and thoughts with a larger  population.The development of blogs have been largely shaped through the format and structure of sites such as WordPress or Blogger. These sites have made it incredibly easy to create a blog and get your ideas published. Blogs provide a means to communicate and share with a large community, creating an opportunity for a more connected world.